如果你家乡的企业因为防治雾霾而限产停产，你会支持还是反对？
如果微信群里，家人时不时发来一些标题为“……秘密”“……必看”的养生文章，你会支持还是劝阻？
如果无数专家都说今年股市要跌、房价要涨，你会相信谁，质疑谁？结论只有一个吗？
……
所有这些问题背后，你自己的观点是什么？你的理由是什么？你有确凿的证据来证实吗？
每当面对一个问题时，我们主动多问为什么，成为一名批判性思维者，擦亮双眼看清世界！
拒绝被“标准答案”的束缚，拒绝沦为别人思想的木偶，拒绝想当然地盲从！
教育的真正目的就是让人不断提出问题、思索问题。
批判性思维经典入门，真正授人以渔的智慧之书
首次推出中英文双语对照学习版，学习原汁原味的批判性思维
雅思、托福 、GRE、GMAT、SAT学习和备考的必备读物
“我知道做个慎思明辨的人是很好的，会问很多恰到好处的问题也很棒，可我就是不知道该问哪些问题，不知道该如何提问。”确实有很多人在谈论学习或教授批判性思维，而且这些人知道批判性思维有赖于系统性地提问。但是他们并未言明：该问哪些问题呢？这些问题又是如何促使人们对他人所阐述的内容进行深思熟虑和公平允正的评价的呢？
针对这些疑问，我们专门撰写了本书，目前这已是本书第12次修订了。只有公众都能独立思考和判断，社会才能高效地运转。如果我们经过批判性问题的层层考验后才形成决定和信念，我们就会更加自信。如果任何东西在进入我们的头脑之前都接受特定标准（这些标准被不同文化背景下的思考者所尊重）的检验，我们将为此备感自豪。
本书从一开始就处于不断改进之中，我们不断汲取来自我们的学生以及使用本书的广大教师的意见和建议。一方面，我们为本书的大获成功以及来自很多国家的广大读者的积极反馈而感到无比振奋；另一方面，我们深感任重而道远，觉得我们需要付出前所未有的巨大努力来教导公众如何“提出正确的问题”。
一些本应博闻广识的身居高位者为事实贴上“假消息”的标签，声称他们有其他事实，以此为自己的主张辩护。“事实可能存在争议”或“事实本身是不完整的，还需要得到更多事实支持”这样的言论本来都是有益的，可以提醒我们，对“现实”做断言是很复杂的。然而，仅仅因为我想得出一个特定的结论，就认为我掌握的事实与你掌握的事实等价，这是最低劣的智力欺诈。
我们一直都非常需要批判性思维，尤其是在这个一些人把科学仅仅视作“另一种视角”的历史时刻。
新的意见一多，对哪些需要认真考虑、哪些可以不予考虑的取舍就变得越来越难做。每天都有人想尽一切办法说服我们，跟我们死缠烂打，其中很多人都喜欢钻牛角尖、走极端，他们的论说诉诸情感的成分多，诉诸理智的成分少。记不清在多少次的公开讨论中，我们遇到普遍的极度无视证据、语言草率、错把声高当有理的情况。相信内心而不顾真相，或者说对真相漠不关心的态度正变得越来越普遍。
我们一心追求的是，希望修订本既能保持《学会提问》这本书的主要特色，同时又能适当调整内容以适应我们新的思考重点和读者不断产生的新需求。例如，我们想保留本书简明扼要、清楚易懂以及篇幅短小的特色。经验告诉我们，这本小书出色地完成了它的目标—传授批判性思考和提问的技能。
正因如此，本书才能实现其一贯秉持的、其他书无法实现的一系列目标。它将帮助学生掌握一整套提问的技能，并且这些技能可以被广泛应用于各个领域。对这些技能的训练都是在轻松、自然的讨论中展开的。（我们的读者对象是普通大众，而不是专业人士。）
本书最为显著的特色之一就是它的适用范围远远超出了你的想象，延伸到生活的方方面面。与批判性思维联系在一起的种种习惯和态度，可以灵活运用到消费、医疗、法律及一般性的伦理和个人选择当中。当外科医生说需要动手术时，寻找本书所倡导的批判性问题的答案就有可能变成生死攸关的事情。此外，坚持提出这些批判性问题也可以巩固我们不断增长的知识，帮助我们更快地发现世界运行的规律，更好地理解这个世界，并理解怎样做才能让世界变得更美好。
本书对谁特别有帮助呢？鉴于我们的教学经验涵盖了各种不同水平和层次的学生，我们很难想象出这本书对哪一门专业或课程派不上用场。事实上，本书已被广泛应用于法律、英语、制药学、哲学、教育学、心理学、社会学、宗教学以及其他各类社科课程，同时还被普遍应用于中学课堂里。
本书特别适合在以下几个领域中应用。通识课程的老师在第一堂课上，面对学生关于他们能从这门课中学到什么的疑问，可以让学生阅读本书，这将为他们的问题提供清晰明了的答案。英语老师在课堂上训练学生写作说明文时，也可以使用本书，不仅可以将其作为构思文章前评估各种不同论点的范本，还可以将其作为写作过程中应避免的问题的检查清单。本书还可以用作旨在培养学生批判性阅读和思考技能的课程中的核心材料。
本书主要生发自我们的课堂教学经验，旨在帮助每个人培养阅读和倾听的习惯。它力求培养的种种技能，是任何一个不盲从盲信的读者都需要的，是理性判断的基础。本书中反复强调的批判性问题可以提高我们的论证能力，不管我们受过什么程度的正规教育。
新版的特色主要包括以下几方面：
1. 长期以来，我们一直觉得有必要将批判性思维延伸至写作和发言。为了达到这个目标，我们向一位经验丰富的写作老师寻求帮助，他使我们能更好地帮助那些希望成为批判性思维者的写作者和发言者。
2. 我们的很多学生受益于我们对文字内容的视觉呈现。为帮助读者更好地学习批判性思维，新版中在讨论特别重要的观点的部分增加了一系列图表。
3. 我们继续吸收丹尼尔·卡尼曼所著的《思考，快与慢》一书里的真知灼见，并使之贯穿全书。我们尤其强调“慢思考”的重要性。
4. 我们用与学生生活更紧密相关的材料替换了1/3的练习文章。我们继续在前几篇练习文章里采取自问自答的方式，即呈现思考以得到答案的过程—好比一个人正努力思考如何评价一篇文章，而读者则在这个人的脑海里旁观整个思考的过程。我们认为与其直接让读者看答案，不如让他们切身“感受”一下接受、拒绝、修正和组织答案的点滴过程，这样他们可以更真切地了解到用来获取答案的批判性思维的实际过程。在这一点上，我们认同著名教育家约翰·加德纳的重要比喻，他曾严厉批评一些老师和培训师只向学生展示从知识园地里采摘的缤纷花朵，而不给学生看让那美丽花朵得以绽放的种植、除草、施肥和修剪的整个过程。
5. 我们还强调了批判性思维的社会属性或者说互动属性，强调了一个人提出批判性问题的方式，可能会极大地影响他提问的价值。例如，很多读者在与人交往时刚跃跃欲试，想秀一秀自己批判性提问的能力，就发现并不是每个人都乐于见到别人对自己的信念展开批判性的盘问。有些互动方法能在批判性思维者与发言者/写作者之间激发出更多令人满意的对话，而有些方法则难以奏效。我们建议读者一定要注意提问和倾听的策略，让对话得以顺利进行，而不要迫使对方关闭对话的渠道。例如，常常会有人一听完你的问题就回应道“你怎么单单就盯上了我呢”，批判性提问的进程就此戛然而止，没了下文。
6. 我们添加了许多新的部分，包括测量误差、灰度思维、操控型论证，以及基本归因错误。
7. 新版还提供了200多个问题及相应解答，教师可以将其用作评估工具或家庭作业。若有钻研和使用这些问题的需求，请访问学习催化平台（https://learningcatalytics.com/sign_in?login=true）。在登录页创建一个个人账户以获取这些问题。
教师手册
教师手册为使用本书的教师提供综合全面的帮助。可以从http://pearsonhighered.com/ 网站上下载这一补充材料，也可以从当地的培生代理商那里获取相关渠道。
本书第12版的问世要特别感谢很多人。首先我们要对培生集团的以下评论者提出的中肯意见表示感谢：内华达大学雷诺分校的Diane K. Lofstrom Miniel、普利茅斯州立大学的Clarissa M. Uttley、亨廷顿学院的John Saunders、坎伯兰大学的Joshua Hayden，以及峡谷学院的 Leslie St. Martin。
我们的学生一直是本书修订意见的主要来源，我们要特别感谢其中几位。第12版尤其得益于Alex Jacobs、Joseph Seipel、Caitlyn Reeder以及Arataenrique Kaku等人提供的大量协助。
如果你对批判性问题以及习惯性追问在思维能力的培养中所起的重要作用非常感兴趣，那么你可以关注尼尔·布朗的博客，与他一起探讨问题与答案之间的复杂关系。博客名为：
1.“层层追问，答无止境”，网址为http://www. celebratequestions.com。
2.“打破脑中坚冰”，网址为http://www.iceinthehead.com。
尼尔·布朗
斯图尔特·基利
“我的写作实验室”：可用来帮助写作
“我的写作实验室”是一个在线作业、辅导和评价程序，旨在为教师和学生提供一些有趣的体验。通过将写作练习与评估结合在一起，教师可以制定出有意义的学习任务，根据自己设定的测试标准来给学生打分，进而通过高级的报告方式来分析课堂表现。对那些在进入一门课程时准备不足的学生来说，“我的写作实验室”提供诊断性测试和个性化辅导，以便学生了解自己的进步程度，这样教师在课堂上就可以少花一些时间来复习要点。“我的写作实验室”包含大量多媒体资源以吸引学生的注意力，并为教师提供全程支持。想要获取更多信息，可以访问以下链接：http://www.pearsonmylabandmastering.com/northamerica/mywritinglab/。
PREFACE
“I know it’s good to be a critical thinker and to be able to ask lots of good questions, but I don’t know what questions to ask or how to ask them.” Indeed, many people speak about learning or teaching critical thinking, and these people know that critical thinking requires the systematic asking of questions. But which questions? And how does each of those questions con-tribute to a thoughtful and fair evaluation of what someone else is saying?
We are now on our 12th edition of a book that we wrote in response to exactly this situation. Democracy works best with a public capable of critical thinking! We can be more confident of our decisions and beliefs when we have formed them after asking critical questions. We can be proud that before anything gets into our heads, it passes particular standards that both we and thinking people in multiple cultures respect.
From the beginning, our book has been a work in progress, as we con-tinue to incorporate input from our students and from the many teachers using this book. While we continue to be immensely pleased by this book’s success and the positive feedback from many readers from many countries, we cannot also help but notice the need for a greater-than-ever expansion of efforts to educate the public in “asking the right questions.”
People in high places, who should know better, label facts “fake news” and justify their claims by saying they have alternative facts. That facts may be in dispute, or that facts are incomplete and need to be supported by yet more facts, is all to the good. Such language could alert us to the complexity of making claims about “reality.” But suggesting that facts I have are equivalent to facts you have just because I want to reach a particular conclusion is intel-lectual dishonesty of the worst order.
We very much need critical thinking always, but especially at this moment in history where some refer to science as “just another perspective.”
Selecting which new suggestions to embrace and which to reject has become increasingly difficult. We are bombarded daily with efforts to per-suade us, many of which are highly polarized and appeal much more to the emotional part of the brain than to the reasoning part. We encounter a gen-eral, immense disrespect for evidence; the sloppy use of language; and substi-tution of hollering for reason in so much of our public discussion. “Truthiness,” or a lack of concern for the truth, becomes more and more common.
Always uppermost in our mind has been the desire to retain the primary attributes of Asking the Right Questions, while adjusting to new emphases in our own thought and the evolving needs of our readers. For instance, we want most of all to keep this book concise, readable, and short. Also, our experi-ence has convinced us that the short book succeeds in the job for which it was intended—the teaching of critical-thinking questioning skills.
Thus, our book continues to do a number of things that other books have failed to do. This text develops an integrated series of question-asking skills that can be applied widely. These skills are discussed in an informal style. (We have written to a general audience, not to any specialized group.)
One feature that deserves to be highlighted is the applicability of Ask-ing the Right Questions to numerous life experiences extending far beyond the classroom. The habits and attitudes associated with critical thinking are transferable to consumer, medical, legal, and general ethical and personal choices. When a surgeon says surgery is needed, it can be life sustaining to seek answers to the critical questions encouraged in Asking the Right Ques-tions. In addition, practicing the critical-thinking questions enhances our growth of knowledge in general and helps us better discover the way the world is, how it could be better understood, and how we can make it a better world.
Who would find Asking the Right Questions especially beneficial? Because of our teaching experiences with readers representing many different levels of ability, we have difficulty envisioning any academic course or program for which this book would not be useful. In fact, this text been used in law, Eng-lish, pharmacy, philosophy, education, psychology, sociology, religion, and social science courses, as well as in numerous high school classrooms.
A few uses for the book seem especially appropriate. Teachers in gen-eral education programs may want to begin their courses by assigning this book as a coherent response to their students’ requests to explain what is expected of them. English courses that emphasize expository writing could use this text both as a format for evaluating arguments prior to constructing an essay and as a checklist of problems that the writer should attempt to avoid as she writes. The text can also be used as the central focus of courses designed specifically to teach critical reading and thinking skills.
While Asking the Right Questions stems primarily from our classroom experiences, it is written so that it can guide the reading and listening habits of almost everyone. The skills that it seeks to develop are those that any criti-cal reader needs to serve as a basis for rational decisions. The critical ques-tions stressed in the book can enhance anyone’s reasoning, regardless of the extent of her formal education.
The special features of this new edition include the following:
1. We have long felt a need to extend the understanding of critical thinking to writing and speaking. Toward that end we sought the assistance of an experienced writing teacher who has greatly enlarged our attempted assistance to writers and speakers who wish to be critical thinkers while communicating.
2. Many of our students benefit from visual representations of what we have already said in print form. To assist their learning of critical think-ing, this edition of our text has added multiple charts at those points where especially important ideas are being discussed.
3. Throughout the book, we have continued to integrate insights from Daniel Kahneman’s Thinking, Fast and Slow. We especially emphasize the impor-tance of slow thinking.
4. We have replaced one-third of the practice passages with material more closely tied to our students’ lives. We continue with think-aloud answers for early practice passages—expressing critical-thinking responses to a passage as if the reader were inside the head of a person struggling with the challenge of evaluating the practice passages. We think that “hear-ing” the bit-by-bit process of accepting, rejecting, revising, and organiz-ing an answer gives the reader a more realistic picture of the actual critical-thinking process used to achieve an answer than would simply observing an answer. Here we are relying on the important metaphor of John Gardner, who chastised teachers and trainers for showing learners only the cut flowers of knowledge and not the planting, weeding, fertil-izing, and pruning that result in a beautiful bouquet.
5. We also emphasize the social or interactive nature of critical thinking and the way in which one asks critical-thinking questions can greatly influence the value of the questioning. For example, many readers ini-tially flexing their critical-questioning muscles with others find that not everyone welcomes the critical questioning of their beliefs. Some inter-active approaches stimulate much more satisfactory dialogues between the critical thinker and the speaker or writer than others. We suggest questioning and listening strategies to keep the conversation going rather than shutting it down. For example, critical questioning will often be brought to a quick halt by a listener’s response of, “Why are you picking on me?”
6. We have added many new sections, including Measurement Errors, Grey Thinking, Managed Reasoning, and Fundamental Attribution Errors.
7. This edition also makes available over 200 questions and answers that instructors may use as an assessment instrument or as homework assign-ments. To examine and use these questions, please go to the Learning Catalytics platform at https://learningcatalytics.com/sign_in?login=true. After arriving at the sign-in page, create a personal account to reach the questions.
Instructor’s Manual
An Instructor’s Manual provides comprehensive assistance for teaching with Asking the Right Questions. Instructors may download this supplement at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/ or request access through their local Pearson representative.
This 12th edition owes special debts to many people. We wish to acknowledge the valuable advice of the following Pearson reviewers: Diane K. Lofstrom Miniel, University of Nevada, Reno; Clarissa M. Uttley, Plymouth State University; John Saunders, Huntingdon College; Joshua Hayden, Cum-berland University; and Leslie St. Martin, College of the Canyons.
While our students are always a major source of suggested improve-ments, a few distinguished themselves in that regard. The 12th edition bene-fited from the especially valuable assistance of Alex Jacobs, Joseph Seipel, Caitlyn Reeder, and Arataenrique Kaku.
If you are fascinated by critical questions and the significance of habitual questioning for our mental development, please join Neil Browne in discuss-ing the complicated relationship between questions and answers at his blogs:
1. Celebrating Bold Questions and Humble Answers: http://www. celebratequestions.com
2. Breaking the Ice in Our Heads: http://www.iceinthehead.com
M. neil Browne
Stuart M. Keeley
MyWritingLab: Now Available for Composition
MyWritingLab is an online homework, tutorial, and assessment program that provides engaging experiences to today’s instructors and students. By incor-porating rubrics into the writing assignments, faculty can create meaningful assignments, grade them based on their desired criteria, and analyze class performance through advanced reporting. For students who enter the course under-prepared, MyWritingLab offers a diagnostic test and personalized reme-diation so that students see improved results and instructors spend less time in class reviewing the basics. Rich multimedia resources are built in to engage students and support faculty throughout the course. Visit http://www.pearson-mylabandmastering.com/northamerica/mywritinglab/ for more information.
成功励志
雅思、托福 、GRE、GMAT、SAT学习和备考的必备读物
哈佛等300多所高校入门读物，30余年经久不衰，豆瓣万人评价8.3高分
学习传统教育中学不到的独立思考能力，启蒙心智，成为具备创造力的创新型人才
掌握华为、腾讯、小米、乐高、IBM等国际创新企业颇为看重的能力
具备21世纪网民必备的素养，揭开事实真相，识别谎言，去伪存真，理性“抬杠”
如果你所在城市的地铁因为安全因素升级了安检程序，你会积极配合还是消极抵触？
如果你喜欢的一位明星或KOL热情向你推荐一款产品，你会立即下单还是深思熟虑?
如果你的老板要求和鼓励你“996”甚至“007”，你会配合还是拒绝？
......
所有这些问题背后，你自己的观点是什么？你的理由是什么？你有确凿的证据来证实吗？
每当面对一个问题时，我们主动多问为什么，成为一名批判性思维者，擦亮双眼看清世界！
拒绝被“标准答案”的束缚，拒绝沦为别人思想的木偶，拒绝想当然地盲从！
教育的真正目的就是让人不断提出问题、思索问题。
为了方便你学习，本书附赠204页英文版学习资源，扫数字资源码即可免费获取
赞 誉
前 言
第1章 正确提问的益处和方法 · 001
我们生活在嘈杂、混乱的世界 · 001
专家说得再动听，也不一定靠得住 · 004
有必要依靠自己的大脑 · 006
激发你的批判性思维 · 006
海绵式思维和淘金式思维 · 008
弱势批判性思维和强势批判性思维 · 012
勤于练习很重要 · 014
批判性思维和与人交往 · 016
批判性思维者拥有的主要价值观 · 018
让对话有效进行下去 · 020
营造友好的交流氛围 · 024
像批判性思维者那样写作和发言 · 024
第2章 论题和结论是什么 · 030
论题的种类 · 032
寻找论题 · 034
寻找写作者或发言者的结论 · 036
找到结论的线索 · 038
思维体操 · 040
给个提示 · 042
第3章 理由是什么 · 048
开始质疑的过程 · 052
理由的提示词 · 056
让理由和结论一目了然 · 056
先有理由，后有结论 · 056
像批判性思维者那样写作和发言 · 060
思维体操 · 064
给个提示 · 068
第4章 哪些词语意思不明确 · 072
让人捉摸不透的多义词 · 074
找准关键词 · 076
检查有没有歧义 · 78
判定歧义 · 080
上下文和歧义 · 084
歧义、定义和字典 · 084
澄清歧义不只是你的责任 · 088
像批判性思维者那样写作和发言 · 088
思维体操 · 094
给个提示 · 096
第5章 价值观假设和描述性假设是什么 · 102
价值观冲突和价值观假设 · 108
从价值观到价值观假设 · 110
典型的价值观冲突 · 112
把立论者的背景作为寻找价值观假设的线索 · 112
把可能发生的后果作为寻找价值观假设的线索 · 114
寻找价值观假设的其他方法 · 116
了解其他人的价值倾向的价值 · 116
价值观与相对性 · 118
找出并评价描述性假设 · 118
描述性假设举例说明 · 120
常见的描述性假设 · 122
找到假设的线索 · 124
像批判性思维者那样写作和发言 · 126
思维体操 · 134
给个提示 · 136
第6章 论证中有没有谬误 · 140
用提问的方法找出论证中的谬误 · 144
从评价假设出发 · 144
发现其他常见的论证谬误 · 150
警惕分散注意力的干扰 · 160
愚弄人的循环论证 · 162
论证谬误小结 · 164
扩展关于谬误的知识 · 166
思维体操 · 166
给个提示 · 170
第7章 证据的效力：个人经历、典型案例、当事人证言和专家陈述 · 174
事实还是见解 · 176
我们需要可靠的证据 · 178
证据的来源 · 180
以个人经历作为证据 · 182
以典型案例作为证据 · 184
以当事人证言作为证据 · 184
以专家意见作为证据 · 188
思维体操 · 192
给个提示 · 196
第8章 证据的效力：个人观察和调查研究 · 198
以个人观察作为证据 · 198
有偏差的调查和问卷 · 200
以研究报告作为证据 · 204
研究发现中存在的一般问题 · 206
从研究样本进行概括 · 214
从测量方法进行概括 · 216
专家观点什么时候最可信 · 220
科学研究和互联网 · 222
像批判性思维者那样写作和发言 · 224
思维体操 · 230
给个提示 · 232
第9章 有没有替代原因 · 236
何时该寻找替代原因 · 238
替代原因的说服力 · 240
寻找替代原因 · 242
唯一的原因还是原因之一 · 242
将多种视角作为寻找替代原因的指导 · 244
混淆相关性和因果关系 · 246
混淆“在此之后”与“因此” · 248
解释单个事件或行为 · 250
评价替代原因 · 252
替代原因与你的表达和交流 · 252
发掘潜在的原因 · 254
思维体操 · 256
给个提示 · 258
第10章 数据有没有欺骗性 · 264
不知来历和有偏差的数据 · 266
令人困惑的平均值 · 268
测量误差 · 272
错把一件事的结论用来证明另一件事 · 272
通过省略信息欺骗 · 274
在自己的写作中使用统计数字 · 278
思维体操 · 278
给个提示 · 280
第11章 有什么重要信息被省略了 · 284
找到省略信息的益处 · 286
不完整的论证在所难免 · 288
帮你识别省略信息的问题 · 290
我们需要知道确切的数字 · 290
负面视角的重要性 · 294
如果省略的信息还是找不到 · 296
像批判性思维者那样写作和发言 · 298
思维体操 · 304
给个提示 · 306
第12章 能得出哪些合理的结论 · 308
二分式思维：妨碍我们考虑多种可能性 · 310
灰度思维：两面还是多面 · 312
条件句的生产力 · 314
识别多个结论能解放思维 · 316
小结 · 316
思维体操 · 318
给个提示 · 320
第13章 干扰批判性思维的障碍 · 324
正确提问带给人的不快 · 324
思考过快 · 326
刻板印象 · 326
背叛我们的思维习惯 · 328
晕轮效应 · 328
信念固着 · 330
可得性启发法 · 332
答非所问 · 332
自我中心 · 334
一厢情愿：批判性思维最大的障碍 · 336
最后的话 · 340
译后记 · 344
CONTENTS
Preface xi
Chapter 1 The Benefit and Manner of Asking the Right Questions 001
The Noisy, Confused World We Live In 001
Experts Cannot Rescue Us, Despite What They Say 005
The Necessity of Relying on Our Mind 007
Critical Thinking to the Rescue 007
The Sponge and Panning for Gold: Alternative Thinking Styles 009
Weak-Sense and Strong-Sense Critical Thinking 013
The Importance of Practice 015
Critical Thinking and Other People 017
Primary Values of a Critical Thinker 019
Keeping the Conversation Going 021
Creating a Friendly Environment for Communication 025
Writing and Speaking as Critical Thinkers 025
Chapter 2 What Are the Issue and the Conclusion? 031
Kinds of Issues 033
Searching for the Issue 035
Searching for the Author’s or Speaker’s Conclusion 037
Clues to Discovery: How to Find the Conclusion 039
Practice Exercises 041
Sample Responses 043
Chapter 3 What Are the Reasons? 049
Initiating the Questioning Process 053
Words That Identify Reasons 057
Keeping the Reasons and Conclusions Straight 057
Reasons First, Then Conclusions 057
Writing and Speaking as Critical Thinkers 061
Practice Exercises 065
Sample Responses 069
Chapter 4 What Words or Phrases Are Ambiguous? 073
The Confusing Flexibility of Words 075
Locating Key Terms and Phrases 077
Checking for Ambiguity 079
Determining Ambiguity 081
Context and Ambiguity 085
Ambiguity, Definitions, and the Dictionary 085
Limits of Your Responsibility to Clarify Ambiguity 089
Writing and Speaking as Critical Thinkers 089
Practice Exercises 095
Sample Responses 097
Chapter 5 What Are the Value and Descriptive Assumptions? 103
General Guide for Identifying Assumptions 107
Value Conflicts and Assumptions 109
From Values to Value Assumptions 111
Typical Value Conflicts 113
The Communicator’s Background as a Clue to Value Assumptions 113
Consequences as Clues to Value Assumptions 115
More Hints for Finding Value Assumptions 117
The Value of Knowing the Value Priorities of Others 117
Values and Relativism 119
Identifying and Evaluating Descriptive Assumptions 119
Illustrating Descriptive Assumptions 121
Common Descriptive Assumptions 123
Clues for Locating Assumptions 125
Writing and Speaking as Critical Thinkers 127
Practice Exercises 135
Sample Responses 137
Chapter 6 Are There Any Fallacies in the Reasoning? 141
A Questioning Approach to Finding Reasoning Fallacies 145
Evaluating Assumptions as a Starting Point 145
Discovering Other Common Reasoning Fallacies 151
Looking for Diversions 161
Sleight of Hand: Begging the Question 163
Summary of Reasoning Errors 165
Expanding Your Knowledge of Fallacies 167
Practice Exercises 167
Sample Responses 171
Chapter 7 The Worth of Personal Experience, Case Examples, Testimonials, and Statements of Authority as Evidence 175
Fact or Opinion? 177
The Need for Dependable Evidence 179
Sources of Evidence 181
Personal Experience as Evidence 183
Case Examples as Evidence 185
Testimonials as Evidence 185
Appeals to Authority as Evidence 189
Practice Exercises 193
Sample Responses 197
Chapter 8 How Good Is the Evidence: Personal Observation and Research Studies? 199
Personal Observation as Evidence 199
Biased Surveys and Questionnaires 201
Research Studies as Evidence 205
General Problems with Research Findings 207
Generalizing From the Research Sample 215
Generalizing From the Research Measures 217
When You Can Most Trust Expert Opinion 221
Research and the Internet 223
Writing and Speaking as Critical Thinkers 225
Practice Exercises 231
Sample Responses 233
Chapter 9 Are There Rival Causes? 237
When to Look for Rival Causes 239
The Pervasiveness of Rival Causes 241
Detecting Rival Causes 243
The Cause or a Cause 243
Multiple Perspectives as a Guide to Rival Causes 245
Confusing Causation with Association 247
Confusing “After This” with “Because of This” 249
Explaining Individual Events or Acts 251
Evaluating Rival Causes 253
Rival Causes and Your Own Communication 253
Exploring Potential Causes 255
Practice Exercises 257
Sample Responses 259
Chapter 10 Are Any Statistics Deceptive? 265
Unknowable and Biased Statistics 267
Confusing Averages 269
Measurement Errors 273
Concluding One Thing, Proving Another 273
Deceiving by Omitting Information 275
Using Statistics in Your Writing 279
Practice Exercises 279
Sample Responses 281
Chapter 11 What Significant Information Is Omitted? 285
The Benefits of Detecting Omitted Information 287
The Certainty of Incomplete Reasoning 289
Questions That Identify Omitted Information 291
But We Need to Know the Numbers 291
The Importance of the Negative View 295
Omitted Information That Remains Missing 297
Writing and Speaking as Critical Thinkers 299
Practice Exercises 305
Sample Responses 307
Chapter 12 What Reasonable Conclusions Are Possible? 309
Dichotomous Thinking: Impediment to Considering Multiple Conclusions 311
Grey Thinking: Two Sides or Many? 313
Productivity of If-Clauses 315
The Liberating Effect of Recognizing Alternative Conclusions 317
Summary 317
Practice Exercises 319
Sample Responses 321
Chapter 13 Speed Bumps Interfering with Your Critical Thinking 325
The Discomfort of Asking the Right Questions 325
Thinking Too Quickly 327
Stereotypes 327
Mental Habits That Betray Us 329
Halo Effect 329
Belief Perseverance 331
Availability Heuristic 333
Answering the Wrong Question 333
Egocentrism 335
Wishful Thinking: Perhaps the Biggest Single Speed Bump on the Road to Critical Thinking 337
Final Words 339
